– Farmers Adaptation Strategies to Drought in Katsina and its Environs –
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ABSTRACT
This research examines farmers’ adaptation strategies to drought in Katsina and its environs. The objectives of the research are to characterize rainfall trend of the study area, to determine the intensity and years of occurrence of drought in the study area, to assess the awareness of farmers on drought issues, to examine the socio-economic effects of drought in the study area, and identify the farmers adaptation strategies within the farming system of the study area.
Rainfall data from 1971 to 2010 were sourced from the Nigerian Meteorological Agency (NIMET) Katsina airport. These data were used to characterize the rainfall trends for monthly and annual total, which are the determinants of cropping season. Statistical tools were used to achieve the above objectives. The 5-year running mean shows that below average rainfall was experienced from the early 1970s up to 2000.
On the other hand, above average rainfall is being experienced from the year 2000 afterward. The result of changes in monthly rainfall revealed that there is a significant decrease in rainfall amount in the month of June, little change in the month of July and substantial increase in the months of August and September. The result of Normalized Rainfall Index shows that moderate to severe drought was experienced in 1970s to 1990s with the peak in 1984.
The 13 years of all drought intensities occurrence represents about (32.50%) of study period (40years) for this station. However, the last decade (2000s) has been witnessing decreasing number of drought occurrences due to apparent increase in wet condition. A total of 385 questionnaires were administered to farmers whom were purposively sampled using Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) method from the sixteen (16) selected wards.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page — — — — — — — — — — i
Declaration — — — — — — — — — — — ii
Certification — — — — — — — — — — iii
Dedication — — — — — — — — — — iv
Acknowledgments — — — — — — — — — v
Abstract — — — — — — — — — — vii
Table of contents — — — — — — — — — viii
List of figures — — — — — — — — — xi
List of tables — — — — — — — — — — xii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION — — — — — — 1
1.1 Background to the Study — — — — — — — — 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem — — — — — — — — 5
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the study — — — — — — — 8
1.4 Scope and Limitation of the Study — — — — — — — 8
1.5 Significance of the Study — — — — — — — 9
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW — — — — — 10
2.1 Rainfall Characteristics — — — — — — — — 10
2.2 Drought — — — — — — — — — — 14
2.2.1 Meteorological drought — — — — — — — — 16
2.2.2 Agricultural drought —- — — — — — — — 17
2.2.3 Hydrological drought — — — — — — — — 18
2.2.4 Socioeconomic drought — — — — — — — — 19
2.3 Causes of Drought — — — — — — — — — 22
2.4 Impacts of Drought — — — — — — — — — 26
2.4.1 Environmental Impacts — — — — — — — — 27
2.4.2 Socio-economic Impacts — — — — — — — — 28
2.5 Characteristics of Drought — — — — — — — — 31
2.6 Agricultural Adaptation — — — — — — — — 35
2.6.1 Indigenous Knowledge in Drought Adaptation — — — — — 38
2.6.2 Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to Drought — — — — — — 41
2.6.2.1 On-Farm Drought Adaptation Strategy — — — — — — 42
2.6.2.2 Off-farm Drought Adaptation Strategy — — — — — — 45
CHAPTER THREE: STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY– — — 47
3.1 Study Area — — — — — — — — — — 47
3.1.1 Location — — — — — — — — — — 47
3.1.2 Climate — — — — — — — — — — 50
3.1.3 Geology and Relief — — — — — — — — — 50
3.1.4 Drainage — — — — — — — — — — 51
3.1.5 Soil — — — — — — — — — — — 51
3.1.6 Vegetation — — — — — — — — — — 52
3.1.7 Economic Activities — — — — — — — — 52
3.2. Methodology of the Study — — — — — — — — 52
3.2.1 Reconnaissance Survey — — — — — — — — 52
3.2.2 Types of Data — — — — — — — — — 53
3.2.3 Source of Data — — — — — — — — — 53
3.3 Sampling Design — — — — — — — — — 54
3.4 Analytical Techniques — — — — — — — — 57
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION — — — — 58
4.1 Rainfall Characteristics and Trends for Monthly and Annual Rainfall — — 58
4.1.1 Trend in June rainfall value in Katsina and its environs for 40 years
(1971-2010) — — — — — — — — — 58
4.1.2 Trend in July rainfall value in Katsina and its environs for 40 years
(1971-2010)– — — — — — — — — 59
4.1.3 Trend in August rainfall value in Katsina and its environs for 40 years
(1971-2010) — — — — — — — — — — 60
4.1.4 Trend in September rainfall value in Katsina and its environs for 40 years
(1971-2010) — — — — — — — — — — 61
4.1.5 Trend in Annual rainfall value in Katsina and its environs for 40 years
(1971-2010) — — — — — — — — — — 62
4.2 Intensity and Years of Occurrence of Drought — — — — — 64
4.3 Demographic Characteristic of Respondents – — — — — 66
4.4 Agricultural Practices — — — — — — — — 69
4.5 Farmers Awareness of Drought — — — — — — — 73
4.6 Adaptation Strategies to Drought — — — — — — — 82
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 90
5.1 Summary — — — — — — — — — — 90
5.2 Conclusion — — — — — — — — — — 92
5.3 Recommendations — — — — — — — — — 94
References — — — — — — — — — 97
Appendix — — — — — — — — — — 111
INTRODUCTION
Drought is one of the most important climate-related disasters which climate change is set to exacerbate (ECA, 2007). Drought, like a Hurricane, flood, earthquake, or tornado, is both a hazard and a natural disaster (Riefler, 1978; Paulo et al, 2005): a hazard because it is a natural accident of unpredictable occurrence but of recognizable recurrence; a natural disaster because it corresponds to the failure of precipitation regime, causing the disruption of the water supply to the natural and agricultural ecosystems as well as to other human activities (Paulo et al, 2005).
Unlike other natural disasters, drought events evolve slowly in time and their impacts generally span a long period of time (Bacanli et al, 2008). Drought occurs in virtually all climatic zones, but its characteristics vary significantly from one region to another. Drought is a temporary aberration; it differs from aridity, which is restricted to low rainfall regions and is a permanent feature of climate (Abaje, 2010).
There is, however, no universal definition of drought due to the wide variety of sectors affected by drought, its diverse geographical and temporal distribution and the demand placed on water supply by human-used systems (Loukas and Vasiliades, 2004). Based on the nature of the water deficit, four types of drought are defined: The meteorological drought is defined by a precipitation deficiency over a pre-determined period of time.
The agricultural drought is defined as a period when soil moisture is inadequate to meet the demands for crops to initiate and sustain plant growth. The hydrological drought is normally defined by deficiencies in surface and sub-surface water supplies relative to average conditions at various points through the seasons. The socio-economic drought occurs when the demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weatherrelated shortfall in water supply. (Wilhite, 2000; Loukas and Vasiliades, 2004 and UN/ISDR, 2007).
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