Abstract
Human sources ( Human not on antibiotics HN, Human on antibiotics, HA) as well as wild life (WL) isolates of Enteric organisms were examined for resistance to some antibacterial agents.
The isolates include Escherichia coli , Klebsiella spp, Citrobacter spp, Enterococcus spp, and Proteus spp.From HN, 48 E.coli isolates (63.15%), 13 isolates of Citrobacter (17.10%), 9 isolates of Klebsiella (11.84%) and 6 isolates of Enteroccocus (7.89%) were tested.
From HA, 45 isolates of E.coli (57.69%), 16 isolates of Citrobacter (20.51%), 5 isolates of Klebsiella(6.41%), 9 isolate of Enteroccocus (11.53%) and 3 isolates of Proteus (3.84%) were evaluated for resistance to antimicrobial agents.
Generally, isolates from HA were more resistant to ampicillin (50%) and augmentin (32.15%) than clarithomycin (5.17%).
Similarly HN isolates were more resistant to ampicillin (29.54%), augmentin (18.73%) and cetriaxone (17.32%) than nitrofuratoin (14.87%).
Bacteria isolated from wild life were species of Enteroccocus , Klebsiella , Proteus and Citrobacter with the total number of isolates ranging from 31 isolates of Citrobacter (43.05%),13 isolates of Proteus (18.05%), 11 isolates of both Klebsiella, Enteroccocus (15.27%) to 6 isolates of E.coli (8.33%).
As was the case with human isolates, those from wild life were also resistant to Ampicillin, Clarithromycin and Augumentin.
The least resistance was demonstrated against Pefloxacin, Ceftriaxone and Ciprofloxacin.
Table Of Contents
TITLE PAGE ——- i
CERTIFICATION ———ii
DEDICATION ——– iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ——– iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS —— V
LIST OF TABLES —— VIII
LIST OF FIGURES ——–IX
LIST OF PLATES —— XI
ABSTRACT ——– XII
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction ——–1
1.1 Aims and Objectives —– 3
2.0 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Literature Review ——-4
2.1 Antibiotics: Definition ——- 4
2.2 History of Antibiotics ——- 6
2.3 Classification of Antibiotics ———- 9
2.4 Classes of Antibiotics ——–10
2.5 Mechanisms of Action of Antibiotics ———–12
2.6 Antimicrobial Drug Resistance ——–13
2.6.1 Antibiotic Resistance: Meaning and History ……13
2.6.2 Causes of Antibiotics Resistance —16
2.6.3 Bacterial Mechanism of Antibiotic Resistance — 18
2.7 Antibiotics Inactivation –19
2.8 Exclusion from the internal environment —21
2.9 Target alteration —–24
2.10 Production of alternative target —– 25
- Replacement of a sensitive pathway and synthesis of resistant metabolic pathway 26
- Acquisition and spread of antibiotic resistance in Bacteria —- 28
2.13 Epidemiology of Resistance —-35
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Experimental Design and study population ——–37
3.2 Isolation and identification of Enteric bacteria from Human and Animal population 38
3.3 Antibiotic Sensitivity Testing ——— 40
3.4 Isolation and plasmid profiling ——– 41
3.5 Agarose gel Electrophoresis ——– 42
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
4.0 Results ——– 44
- Demographic information obtained from questionnaire ——- 44
- Distribution of organisms isolated from both Human and Wildlife sources —— 44
- Distribution of antibiotic resistance among Enterobacteriaceae isolated from different human groups—-55
- Distribution of antibiotic resistance among Enterobacteriaceae isolated from wild animals– 63
- Antimicrobial resistance pattern of Enterobacteriaceae obtained from human and wild sources…..67
- Plasmid DNA Profiling and distribution among isolated organisms —- 76
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION 5.1
Discussion —————83
5.2 Summary of Findings——–89
5.3 Conclusion and Recommendation —– 90
6.0 REFERENCES —– 91
APPENDIX I: Laboratory media –107
APPENDIX II: Questionnaire — 115
APPENDIX III:Statistical tables —–120
Introduction
Background Of Study
Bacteria of the Enterobacteriaceae family are primary inhabitants of the lower gastrointestinal tract of man and animals.
Many survive readily in nature while some are found living free where water and minimum energy sources are available.
In humans, they comprise the highest proportion of the bacterial content in the gut. They are also found in the female genital tract and as transient colonizers of the mucous membrane.
As a family, these microorganisms produce the widest variety of infections compared to other microbial agents (Oguntebeju and Nwobu, 2004).
Throughout history, there has been a continual battle between humans and the multitude of microorganisms that cause infection and disease.
Animals are known to constitute a vast reservoir of enteric bacteria with the general problem of environmental contamination by organic waste with regard to human and animals.
Bacterial resistance to antibiotics has assumed an increasing importance with regards to its impact on public health, economy and ecology (Kruse and Sorum, 1994).
Human populations, animal populations, and the environment are all interconnected, and there is a blurring of the lines previously drawn that distinguished human diseases from animal diseases (Chomel, 1998).
Infections of humans and animals with antimicrobial resistant bacteria, contamination of food, drink and the environment with resistant bacteria has become of significant concern (Poppe et al., 2001).
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