ABSTRACT
The utilization of materials to produce a useful product is highly encouraged to avoid its disposal on land fields so as to safeguard the environment. Kaolin waste, soda-lime, and borosilicate glass wastes were used to develop glass-.
The oxides of the raw were determined using the X-Ray Fluorescence machine while the moisture content and loss on ignition were determined by the weight loss method and the following results were obtained;
SiO₂ 80.50% for borosilicate 77.63% in soda-lime and 46.80% in kaolin, Fe₂O₃ content in borosilicate was O.22%, 0.30%in soda-lime and 0.01% in kaolin.
V₂O5 was found in kaolin and soda-lime glass wastes and B₂O₃ only in borosilicate glassware. CaO content of 7.46% in soda-lime with a value less than 1.0% in kaolin and borosilicate. Loss on ignition of 10.13% was found in kaolin,
0.30% in soda-lime and 1.34% in borosilicateAl₂O₃ content of kaolin is 31.41%, 0.60% in soda-lime, and 0.52% in borosilicate, the MgO content of 0.20% in kaolin, 2.63% soda-lime and 0.03% in borosilicate waste glass.
sizes of 90 µm, 125 µm, and 250 µm of the waste glasses were used to formulate batches, which were compressed into pellet shapes of 20mm in diameter with a thickness of 5mm.
The hydraulic pressing machine at a pressure of 10metric tones using the polyvinyl chloride (PVC) organic binder was used to produce pellets. Then sintered at 750c°, 850°c, and 950°c in a furnace at a heating rate of 50C /min with a residence time of one hour and cooled gradually.
The composition containing kaolin, soda-lime, borosilicate with 90µm particle size sintered at 950°Cgave the highest shrinkage in diameter with the value of 17.36% and a batch containing kaolin, borosilicate, and Na₂SO₄ with 250 µm particle size sintered at 750°C gave an average of 0.94% in diameter.
The physical properties of porosity, water absorption, and bulk density were measured at all sintered temperatures for all the batches. The highest bulk density was found to be 2.54g /cm3 in the batch K₅B₅SL₉ₒ with 90 µm particle size at 850°C sintering temperature.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cover page………………………………………………………………………i
Title page………………………………………………………………………..ii
Declaration……………………………………………………………………..iii
Certification……………………………………………………………….……iv
Dedication…………………………………………………………………………v
Acknowledgment………………………………………………………………vi
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………..vii
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………viii
List of Figures……………………………………….. …….. ……………………xiv
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………xvi
List of Plates…………………………………………………………………….xvii
List of Appendices………………………………………………………………xviii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background…………………………………………………………………1
1.2 Statement of Problem……………………………………………………….3
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study……………………………………………4
1.4 Justification…………………………………………………………………4
1.5 Significance…………………………………………………………………5
16 Scope and Delimitation of the Study………………………………………. 6
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Glass Ceramics………………………………………………………………7
2.2 Waste Generation……………………………………………………………8
2.3 Waste Recycling ………………………………………………………. 9
2.4 Glass Recycling……………………………………………………………. 10
2.5 Borosilicate Glass………………………………………………………….. 11
2.6 Borosilicate Glass Waste…………………………………………………… 11
2.7 Soda-lime Silica Glass……………………………………………………… 12
2.8 Soda-lime Silica Waste Glass……………………………………………… 12
2.9. Kaolin……………………………………………………………………….13
2.10 Kaolin Deposit in Nigeria………………………………………………….. 13
2.11 Kaolin Processing Waste………………………………………………….. 14
2.12 Glass Ceramics Products……………………………………………………15
2.13 Nucleation and Crystallisation………………………………………………15
2.14 Glass Ceramic Process Route……………………………………………… 16
2.15 Devitrification………………………………………………………………20
2.16 Glass-Ceramics Composition Systems…………………………………….. 22
2.17 Glass Ceramic Production Methods…………………………………………23
2.17.1 Conventional Method……………………………………………………….23
2.17.2 Petrurgic Method…………………………………………………………… 24
2.17.3 Powder Sintering Method………………………………………………….. 24
2.17.4 Uniaxial Pressing Technique………………………………………………. 25
2.18 Particle Size………………………………………………………………… 25
2.19 Forming……………………………………………………………………. 26
2.20 Densification………………………………………………………………..26
2.21 Sintering…………………………………………………………………….27
2.21.1 Solid State Sintering……………………………………………………….. 27
2.21.2 Sintering Mechanism………………………………………………………. 27
2.23 Types of Glass Ceramics…………………………………………………… 30
2.23.1 Commercial Glass Ceramics………………………………………………..30
2.23.2 Machinable Glass Ceramics………………………………………………..31
2.23.3 Dental Glass-Ceramics………………………………………………………31
2.23.4 Bioactive Glass Ceramics………………………………………………….. 32
2.23.5 Electrically Conducting and Insulating Glass Ceramic……………………. 32
2.23.6 Transparent Glass-Ceramics……………………………………………….. 33
2.23.7 Glass – Ceramic Armor…………………………………………………….. 33
2.24 Properties of Glass-ceramics………………………………………………. 34
2.24.1 Mechanical Properties………………………………………………………34
2.24.2 Density…………………………………………………………………….. 34
2.24.3 Thermal Properties………………………………………………………….35
2.24.4 Optical Properties………………………………………………………….. 35
2.24.5 Electrical Properties………………………………………………………..35
2.24.6 Dielectric Properties…………………………………………………………36
2.24.7 Chemical Properties…………………………………………………………38
2.25 Applications of Glass Ceramics…………………………………………….38
2.26 Production of Glass-Ceramics from Wastes Materials…………………….. 39
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Raw Materials………………………………………………………………50
3.2 Sample Treatment and Laboratory Analysis………………………………. 50
3.2.1. Beneficiation………………………………………………………………..50
3.2.2 Sample Preparation………………………………………………………… 51
3.3 X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis………………………………………………51
3.4 Determination of Moisture Content of Kaolin………………………………52
3.5 Batch Formulation…………………………………………………………. 52
3.6 Pellet Formation…………………………………………………………….55
3.7 Sintering…………………………………………………………………….55
3.8 Determination of Percentage Firing Shrinkage……………………………. 58
3.9 Measurement of Bulk Density, Apparent Density, and Percentage Porosity. 58
3.10. Water Absorption……………………………………………………………60
3.11 Hardness Test…………………………………………………………….. 61
3.12 X-ray Diffraction Studies………………………………………………….. 62
3.13 Scanning Electron Microscopy Studies……………………………………. 62
3.14 Chemical Durability Test……………………………………………………62
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
4.1 Sample Collection…………………………………………………………..65
4.2. Pulverised and Sieved Samples……………………………………………. 65
4.3. Moisture Content and Loss on Ignition……………………………………. 65
4.4 Oxides Analysis……………………………………………………………. 65
4.5 Pellets Formation…………………………………………………………… 67
4.6 Sintering……………………………………………………………………67
4.7. Shrinkage…………………………………………………………………… 70
4.8 Water absorption, Percentage Porosity, Bulk, and Apparent Densities……..72
4.8.1 Water Absorption………………………………………………………….. 72
4.8.2 Porosity…………………………………………………………………….. 75
4.8.3 Bulk and Apparent Densities………………………………………………. 78
4.9 Hardness…………………………………………………………………….84
4.10 Chemical durability…………………………………………………………86
4.11 Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-ray Diffraction…………………….. 86
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
5.1 Moisture Content and Loss on Ignition……………………………………. 101
5.2 Oxides Analysis……………………………………………………………. 101
5.3 Particle Size Effect………………………………………………………….102
5.3.1 Shrinkage…………………………………………………………………… 102
5.3.2. Water Absorption……………………………………………………………103
5.3.4 Porosity…………………………………………………………………….. 103
5.3.5 Bulk and Apparent Densities………………………………………………. 104
5.3.6 Hardness…………………………………………………………………….105
5.4 Composition Effect…………………………………………………………105
5.4.1 Shrinkage…………………………………………………………………… 105
5.4.2. Water Absorption……………………………………………………………106
5.4.3 Porosity…………………………………………………………………….. 107
5.4.4 Bulk and Apparent Densities………………………………………………. 107
5.4.5 Hardness ……………………………………………………………… 108
5.5 Sintering Temperature Effect……………………………………………….109
5.5.1 Shrinkage…………………………………………………………………… 109
5.5.2 Water Absorption……………………………………………………………109
5.5.3 Porosity…………………………………………………………………….. 110
5.5.4 Bulk and Apparent Densities………………………………………………. 110
5.5.5 Hardness ………………………………………………………………….111
5.6. Chemical durability…………………………………………………………111
5.7 Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-ray Diffraction…………………….. 112
CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1. Summary……………………………………………………………………117
6.2 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………. 117
6.3 Recommendations…………………………………………………………..118
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………….. 119
INTRODUCTION
Background Glass-ceramics are fine-grain polycrystalline ceramic materials obtained through the controlled Crystallisation of suitable glass compositions and different heat treatments (Callister, 2005).
Considerable research work has been devoted to the recovery and safe, use of waste residues from industries and domestic uses. The wastes from the industry contain a high concentration of toxic substances, heavy metals, organic substances, and soluble salts.
Waste processing resulting in a reduction of the noxious and toxic substances occupies a central place for environmental preservation.
Recycling methods and technologies with a minimum quantity of energy and time are designed for the protection of the environment against pollution by toxic elements produced by industrial chemical waste (Sheppard, 1990).
The development of new glass-ceramics is particularly relevant due to the possibility of recycling large amounts of waste materials by incorporating them into the glass-ceramics formulations.
This trend is in line with one of the most important concerns of the present to ensure the quality of life of future generations by the minimization of the consumption of traditional raw – materials (Menezes et al., 2002 and Andreola et al., 2002).
The production of glass-ceramic materials made by recycling industrial waste is an innovative development in the glass-ceramic industry. Many researchers have paid much attention to the production of glass-ceramic and sintered materials from industrial wastes to make them reasonably safe for the environment.
The insertion of waste materials into the production cycle might represent an alternative option that is interesting from both environmental and economic perspectives (Sanchezet al., 2006).
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Local Raw Materials. Ashakwu Journal of ceramic vol. 5 Dasma Press, Zaria.
American Society Testing Material. (ASTM. C.373-88) (2006).Standard Test MethodForWater
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