World War I
The first world war broke out when a Serbian nationalist seeking to free slaves from Austrian domination assassinated Archduke Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary at Sarajevo in June 1914.1
Before the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, there were already conditions which could cause war even with the slightest provocation. For instance, two hostile alliances had been entered into by Austria- Hungary, Italy and Germany against France, Britain and Russia.
The functioning of triple alliance and triple entente portend danger as the atmosphere was charged, though the triple alliance was a military pact in which an attack on one means attack on all others, triple entente was not a military alliance purposely against Germany’s bid to rule the world.
The efficacy of the triple alliance as a military pact was tested after the assassination, the assassination led Austria to declare war on Serbia on July 28 russia mobilized its troops to defend Serbia from Austria. This made Germany to declare war on Russia on 1st august on 3rd august, Germany declared war on Russia’s ally France.
The German aggression on a neutral state, Belgium brought Britain into the war. Britain went to Belgiums defence and declared war on Germany on 4th august.
Historians have not agreed on who were responsible for the outbreak of war. The allied forces who won the war insist that war guilt belonged to Germany alone.
Versailles Peace Settlement
In January 1918, the delegation of twenty-seven victorious allied nations gathered in Paris to conclude a final settlement of the First World War. Many delegates were of the view that the mistakes made at the Vienna conference of 1815 like satisfying the selfish ends of autocrats would be avoided. In fact, Harold Nicholson, a British delegated outlined what he felt the conference should achieve . In his words: “we were journeying to Paris not merely to liquidate the war, but to find a new order in Europe, we were preparing not peace only, but eternal peace. There was about us the halo of some divine mission… for we were bent on doing great, permanent and noble things”2
Also president Woodrow Wilson, a core idealist outlined a 14-point programme which he believed would ensure peace. Wilson soon discovered that secret treaties entered into before the war were still strong even when they conflicted with the principles of self-determination which he enunciated. National interest and pragmatic motives preoccupied with issues of national security, great Britain voted David Lloyd in 1918 to ensure that Germans pay for their war guilt. Clemenceau, French premier argued that French people suffered the highest degree of German aggression. Therefore, France needed revenge and security in case of further acts of aggression. Clemenceau insisted on demilitarized Germany, and the Rhineland as buffer zone between Germany and France.
Though the Versailles peace settlement was composed on 27 nations, major decisions were made by the big three Wilson, Clemenceau and Lioyd George, Germany was not represented.
It should come as no surprise, given both the intractability of Europe’s problems and the diversity of the victorious coalition, that the peacemakers failed to agree amongst themselves on the shape of the post war world . While Wilson was determined to create the league of nations to prevent future wars. Clemenceau and Lioyd George insisted on punishing Germany.
It was compromise which eventually made it possible for a peaceful settlement on January 25, 1919. The conference adapted the principle of the league of nations. Britain and United States pledged to assist France if it were attacked by Germany.
1. The peace treaty consisted of five separate treaties with the axis (defeated countries). Germany Austria, Hungary and turkey. The treaty with Germany which was signed on June 28, 1919 was perhaps the most important, Germans considered it harsh particularly the article on war guilt which suggested that Austria and Germany started the war and must pay reparations.
2. The military provisions of the treaty were equally punitive in nature. For instance, Germany had no reduce its military force by 100,000 men, reduce its armory and completely abolish its air force.
3. On territorial provision, Germany lost some of its territories. For instance, she was forced to return Alsace-Lorraine to France and a section Prussia, to a new polish state.
German land west and as far as
thirty miles east of the Rhineland was established as a buffer zone, and stripped of all armaments or fortifications, to serve as a barrier to any future German military moves westwards against France. The German government described the treaty as “dictated peace” it, however, accepted, though outraged by it.
The peacemakers made separate treaty with other powers who lost the war (Bulgaria, Hungary, Austria turkey), essentially redrawing the map of Eastern Europe. Both Germans and Russians lost considerable territory in Eastern Europe while Austro-Hungarian empires disappearance completely. The ottoman empire was dismembered by the peace settlement . new nations emerged from the lands of the three empires. And in Eastern Europe, the peacemakers created avenues for compromises because it was difficult to draw boundaries along neat ethnic lines. Virtually every Eastern European nation was left with minorities problems. There were Germans in Poland, Hungarians, poles, and Croats, Slovenes, Macedonian, and Albanians in Yugoslavia all became causes of future conflict. The peace settlement negotiated at Paris was heavily criticized not only by the defeated countries but by others who felt that the peacemaker did not see beyond the period of settlement. The French general force predicted after the signing of the treaty, “Versailles would not bring peace, only armistice for twenty years. It had solved none of Europe fundamental problems”.
The famous British economist john Maynard Keynes criticized the peacemakers because they preoccupied themselves with frontiers at the expense of economic issues that left Europe’s inefficient , unemployed, and disorganized”.4
Generally, the Versailles peace settlement of 1919 was too hard on Germany and many Germans argued against the treaty. For instance, Adolf Hitlers regime vehemently opposed the peace arrangement. Many non-Germans maintained that the Versailles peace arrangement gave Germans legitimate grievances. However, A.J.P Taylor, a well –known British historian advanced the view that the Versailles peace treaty was not harsh. He maintained that the German problem was not resolved by the peacemakers. The treaty failed to destroy largest unitary state in the heart of Europe.
However, whether the peace treaty was too hard or not hard enough, it was clear that it would fail because no major power was clearly committed to upholding it.
Causes of World War II
There were profound structural forces which undermined stability in Europe. In fact, the Second World War was the continuation of the first. There was clear imbalance of power which had existed in Europe since the unification of Germany. The war was a manifestation of deep-rooted instability in Europe.
To many historians. The second world war was not only propelled by structural forces but human angle also played a role in bringing about the second world war. For instance, no story of the origin of the war would be told without particular reference to Adolf Hitter. In fact, some historians argue that it was simply Hitler’s war the post-war Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals equally admitted that it was Hitlers war.
Generally, the origins of World War II have been subject of controversy among scholars. Most historians maintain that Hitler and Nazi Germany were responsible for the war, that is their attempt in expand German power in Europe.
Perhaps the most controversial of the origin of World War II by a known historian is that by A.J.P Taylors. The origin of world war ii: in this text, Taylor argues that Nazi ideology had nothing whatsoever to do with the second world war though responsible for the evil of the gas chamber.
However, many reasons accounted for the outbreak of World War II
1. German nationalism propelled the people to recover lost territories and regain people of German origin living in Austria, Poland and Czechoslovakia.
2. German imperialistic desires were pushed by Nazi regimes ideology (fascism) which encouraged racism, nationalism and imperialism.
3. There was a strong desire to forcefully expand the German state.
4. German aggression was inflamed by resentment of punitive, unfair and unfavourable terms arising from the 1919 Versailles peace treaty. For instance, under pressure, the peacemakers accepted French insistence on the destruction of German armed forces and the loss of German territory (alsce-lorraine) a rich territory which Germany had acquired earlier following the Franco Prussian war, 1870-1871.
5. There was the disintegration of Austro-Hungarian empires.
6. Germany was denied entry into the international system as co-equal member. She was only admitted into League of Nations in 1926
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