Assessment of Tobacco Company Effluent for Radioactivity and Other Parameters for Groundwater around the Company in Chikaji, Zaria, Kaduna, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
Twenty (20) groundwater samples, four of which are control samples, comprising of ten (10) borehole and ten (10) locally hand-dug wells were drawn randomly around British America Tobacco Company, Zaria.
Some physical parameters: temperature, pH, conductivity and total dissolved solids were measured usingthermometer, pH meter and conductivity meter.
The samples were analysed for gross alpha and gross beta radiations using MPC-2000-DP (01872140) single channel analyser, a low background alpha and beta detector.
The meantemperature, pH, conductivity and total dissolved solids in the water samples were found to be 27.8 °C, 5.1, 393µS/cm and 244.8 mg/l respectively.
For practical screening purposes in the case of drinking water, the recommended guideline activity concentrations are 0.1 Bq/l for gross alpha and 1.0 Bq/l for gross beta activity (WHO, 1993; 2003).
The gross alpha and beta 14 radioactivity concentrations in the samples showed that the alpha activity varied from (0.007 — 0.133) Bq/l with a mean value of 0.046 Bq/l for borehole samples and (0.002 — 0.285) Bq/l with a mean value of 0.056 Bq/l for well water samples.
The beta activity varied from (0.113 — 3.789) with a mean value of 1.627 Bq/l for borehole water samples and (0.001-3.810) with a mean value of 0.887 Bq/l for well water samples respectively.
The mean for gross alpha activity and gross beta activity in the sample waters are 0.051±0.003 Bq/l and 1.251±0.091 Bq/l respectively.
TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARATION … ii
CERTIFICATION …. ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .. iv
DEDICATION…….v
TABLE OF CONTENT.vi
LIST OF TABLES …..x
LIST OF FIGURES . xi
ABSTRACT…. xii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background ..1
1.2 Statement of Research Problem ….3
1.3Justification of the Research ….5
1.4Aim and Objectives of the Study .6
1.4.1 Aim……..6
1.4.2 Objectives….7
1.5 Scope and Limitations……..7
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1Introduction…..8
2.2 Water Pollution …8
2.2.1 Industrial Effluent …..9
2.3 Groundwater…..9
2.4Radioactivity .10
2.4.1 Types of radiation …11
2.4.2Interaction of Nuclear Radiation with Matter…..14
2.4.2.1 Photoelectric absorption.14
2.4.2.2 Compton scattering….15
2.4.2.3 Pair production……16
2.5 Measurement and Assessment of Radioactivity…16
2.5.1Absorbed Dose ….17
2.5.2 Equivalent dose ..18
2.5.3 Effective dose…..18
2.5.4 Committed equivalent and effective dose…..19
2.6 Chemical Effects of Radiation…19
2. 6.1 Other Water Quality Parameters and their Impacts on Water Uses….21
2. 6.1.1 Physical Parameters ……..21
2.6.1.2 Chemical Parameters…….23
2.6.1.3 Biological Parameters ……..27
2.7 Tobacco and Cigarette Industry …..27
2.7.1Wastewater Disposal Options……..29
2.8 Health Implications of Radioactivity in Water .32
2.8.1 Biological Effect of Radiation…………33
2.8.2 Describing water quality in terms of its radioactivity content ……34
2.9Review of the Previous Works……….36
CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Materials…..41
3.2 Methodology ….42
3.2.1 The Study Area …..42
3.2.1.1 Experimental Design….42
3.2.1.2 Sample Population ..42
3.2.2Sample Collection ……44
3.2.3Sample Preparation …44
3.2.4Analysis…..45
3.3 Instrumentation …….46
3.3.1 Gross Alpha and Beta Counter (MPC-2000-DP)..47
3.3.1.1 Efficiency Calibration 47
3.3.1.2 Countimg……48
3.3.1.3 Alpha/ Beta – Activity presentation …..49
3.3.1.4 Contour Distribution ……49
3.3.2 Measurement of Electrical Conductivity …..49
3.3.3 Determination of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)……51
3.3.4 Determination of Rffective Dose. …..52
CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1Introduction…….53
4.2Results…..53
4.3 Contour Mapping …….62
4.4 Determination of Annual Committed Effective Dose…..66
CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1Introduction…..67
5.1.2 Summary …….67
5.1.3Comparison of Results……68
5.2 Conclusion ….70
5.3 Recommendations….72
5.4Contribution to knowledge……72
REFERENCES……73
INTRODUCTION
Drinking water sourced from deep wells and boreholes are usually expected to have high concentration of radioactive nuclides. This is because they pass through fractures in bedrocks or within the soil which contains minerals deposits that might have radioactive constituents and thus leaking into the water ways. Radioactivity in drinking water is one of the major ways in which radionuclides from the environment gets into the human body, which might consequently lead to radiation-induced disorderness (USEPA, 2010).
There is evidence from both human and animal studies that radiation exposure at low to moderate doses may increase the long term incidence of cancer and that the rate of genetic malformations may be increased by radiation over exposure (Otton, 1994). It is therefore important to determine the amount of radioactivity in drinking water for every area where people live in, so as to guard against its health hazards (WHO, 2006). Groundwater could be contaminated by radioactive materials because terrestrial radioactivity increases with depth in the earth crust (WHO, 1998).
These radioactive materials occur naturally and of most concern are the uranium and thorium series and the progenies (radon and thoron). They contribute to the radioactivity of the rain and groundwater which in turn affects drinking water. Due to these, drinking water from deep wells and boreholes are expected to contain high concentrations of radioactive elements. Radioactive materials could also be washed into wells, boreholes and even enter through burst pipes.
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