Modulatory Effects of Ascorbic Acid on Neurobehavioural and Physiological Responses Induced by Propofol Anaesthesia in Goats

Modulatory Effects of Ascorbic Acid on Neurobehavioural and Physiological Responses Induced by Propofol Anaesthesia in Goats.

ABSTRACT 

The aim of the study was to evaluate the modulatory effect of ascorbic acid on neurobehavioural and physiological changes, induced by propofol anaesthesia in goats. Twenty-four Red Sokoto goats divided into four groups were used for the experiment. Goats in group I (VC) received only ascorbic acid (200 mg/kg).

Goats in group II (PFOL) received only propofol (5 mg/kg), while those in group III (VC200 + PFOL) and group IV (VC300 + PFOL) were administered with ascorbic acid at the dose rates of 200 mg/kg and 300 mg/kg, respectively prior to propofol (5 mg/kg) induction.

Pain response after the administration of ascorbic acid and propofol was evaluated in each goat by monitoring and scoring its behaviour. Onset and duration of anaesthesia in the goats were also recorded.

Haematological parameters, taken before and after anaesthetic induction, were analyzed for leucocyte count, packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin concentration, erythrocyte count and erythrocyte osmotic fragility.

The serum obtained from each blood sample was analyzed for electrolytes (Cl^–, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, and HCO₃^–), the activity of antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and enzymes alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP).

Goats (57.1%) in group IV had a pain score of 0, and none of the goats scored 3. Pain score was highest in goats administered with propofol alone, and scores of 3 and 2 were recorded in 40% and 60% of the treated goats, respectively.

There was a significant (P < 0.05) increase in duration of anaesthesia in the VC300+PFol group (27.29 ± 4.11 min), when compared to the VC200+Pfol (15.29 ± 1.19 min) and PFol groups (10.6 ± 2.23 min).

There was a significant (P < 0.05) decrease in onset of anaesthesia in the VC300+PFol group (2.0 ± 0.22 s) and VC200+Pfol (2.57 ± 0.29 s) when compared to the PFol groups (4.6 ± 0.68 s).

There was a significant (P < 0.05) increase in Mg²⁺ concentration in only the groups administered with VC but no significant change occured in other electrolytes and serum enzymes.

The activity of GPx and SOD rose in the Pfol group (P < 0.05) from 30.4 ± 1.33 IU/L to 36.8 ± 0.97 IU/L and 1.3 ± 0.08 IU/L to 1.7 ± 0.06 IU/L respectively indicating that propofol may be a potent antioxidant

In conclusion, the administration of ascorbic acid prior to propofol anaesthesia ameliorated pain caused by propofol and prior administration of ascorbic acid decreased the onset and increased the duration of propofol anaesthesia in goats.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page——— ii

Declaration——— iii

Certification————- iv

Dedication——- v

Acknowledgement————– vi

Abstract———— vii

Table of content————— ix

List of Figures——- xiv

List of Tables——— xvi

List of Appendices– xvii

List of Abbreviations———- xviii

INTRODUCTION

• Statement of the Problem                           3

• Justification of the Study                          4

CHAPTER 2:            LITERATURE REVIEW

• Classification of pain———- 8
• Pain recognition and assessment in domestic animals——- 10
• Pain scales———– 11
• Pain and behaviour————- 12
• Mechanism of pain——- 13
• Pain management——————– 19

• Oxidative Stress 19
  • Pain as a stress factor————- 21
  • Anaesthesia as a stress factor——– 22
  • Antioxidants—————– 23
• General Anaesthetics 24
  • General anaesthesia in goats——— 25
  • Nervous system monitoring during general anaesthesia—— 26
• Propofol 27
  • Mechanism of action of propofol————- 28
  • Properties of propofol———————— 29
  • Pain on injection of propofol————— 32
  • Propofol in goats————————- 35
  • Propofol as an antioxidant———– 36
• Ascorbic Acid 37
  • Ascorbic acid as an antioxidant———– 38
  • Physiological functions of ascorbic acid——— 39
  • Intravenous Use of ascorbic acid———— 42
  • Ascorbic acid as an ergogenic aid————- 43
  • Role of ascorbic acid in pain relief———- 45
  • Toxicity and overdose of ascorbic acid————- 46

CHAPTER 3:            MATERIALS AND METHOD

• Physiological Parameters 48

• Neurobehavioural Study 49
  • Evaluation of reflexes—– 49
  • Behavioural and pain study———- 49

Haematological Parameters      50

• Determination of blood cell counts and packed cell volume————————– 50
• Erythrocyte osmotic fragility———- 50

  Biochemical Parameters     51

  Determination of Superoxide Dismutase, and Glutathione peroxidise————— 51

• Superoxide dismutase activity——– 51
• Glutathione peroxidase activity—— 52
• Statistical Analysis 52

CHAPTER 4:  RESULTS

• Effect of Ascorbic Acid and Propofol on Onset and Duration of Anaesthesia        53

• Effect of ascorbic acid and propofol on onset of anaesthesia————————– 53
• Effect of ascorbic acid and propofol on duration of anaesthesia———————– 53

Effect of Ascorbic acid and Propofol on Pain Score————————————— 53

Effect of Ascorbic Acid and Propofol on Physiological Parameters—————— 54

• Effect of ascorbic acid and propofol anaesthesia on heart rate———————– 54
• Effect of ascorbic acid and propofol anaesthesia on respiratory rate—————— 54
• Effect of ascorbic acid and propofol anaesthesia on rectal temperature————— 55

Effect of Ascorbic acid and Propofol Anaesthesia on Haematology—————— 62

• Effect of Ascorbic acid and Propofol anaesthesia on Packed Cell Volume (PCV)—– 62

• Effect of Ascorbic acid and Propofol anaesthesia on Leucocyte count—————- 62
• Effect of Ascorbic acid and Propofol anaesthesia on Red Blood Cell count— 62

• Effect of Ascorbic acid and Propofol anaesthesia on Haemoglobin concentration– 63

• Effect of ascorbic acid and propofol anaesthesia on erythrocyte osmotic fragility—- 63

  Effect of Ascorbic acid and Propofol Anaesthesia on Serum Biochemistry– 70

• Effect of ascorbic acid and propofol anaesthesia on total protein, globulin and albumin concentration– 70

• Effect of ascorbic acid and propofol anaesthesia on serum Urea levels—————- 75
• Effect of ascorbic acid and propofol anaesthesia on serum antioxidant enzymes—- 75

• Effect of Ascorbic acid and Propofol anaesthesia on serum enzymes——– 76
• Effect of Ascorbic acid and propofol anaesthesia on Serum electrolyte concentration——- 84

Effect of Ascorbic Acid and propofol anaesthesia on Reflexes————————- 91

• Effect of ascorbic acid and propofol anaesthesia on pedal reflex———————- 91
• Effect of ascorbic acid and propofol anaesthesia on swallowing reflex—————- 91
• Effect of ascorbic acid and propofol anaesthesia on jaw tone————————- 95
• Effect of ascorbic acid and propofol anaesthesia on palpebral reflex—————— 95

CHAPTER 5:            DISCUSSION    96

CHAPTER 6:   CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

• Conclusion 105
• Recommendations -105

REFERENCES 106

APPENDICES

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INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Pain is a complex interaction involving sensory, emotional and behavioural factors (Serpell, 2006). Animal pain is an aversive sensory experience representing awareness by the animal of damage or threat to the integrity of its tissues.

It changes the animal‘s physiology and behaviour to reduce or avoid the damage, to reduce the likelihood of its recurrence and to promote recovery (Molony, 1997).

Pain typically involves a noxious stimulus or event that activates nociceptors in the body‘s tissues and conveys signals to the central nervous system, where they are processed and generate multiple responses (NRC, 2009).

Painful stimuli evoke not only discrete sensory perceptions and somatic motor responses, but also marked changes in emotional and autonomic states (Gauriau and Benard, 2002).

The ability to quantify the degree of pain experienced by animals is an important component in the assessment of animal welfare (Barnett, 1997), and may provide useful information on the outcome of intervention to ameliorate pain.

Pain causes discomfort, impairs functions and immune responses in the body (Hellebrekers, 2000), resulting in negative consequences on livestock production. Inflammatory responses associated with injuries and pains have direct adverse impact on feed intake.

Anorexia and lethargy are induced by cytokines, including interleukin-1, interleukin-6 and tumour necrosis factor-α, released by the inflammatory process, the stimulation of tissue catabolism and exerts their effects on the central nervous system (Johnson, 1997).

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REFERENCES

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Adetunji, A. and Ogunyemi, T. R. (1998). An evaluation of xylazine/ketamine anaesthesia in West African Dwarf goats. Tropical Veterinarian, 16: 115-121.
Aguirre, R., May, M. J. (2008). Inflammation in the vascular bed: Importance of  vitamin C. Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 119: 96–103.
Akeson, J. (2008). Pain on injection of propofol – why bother? Acta Anaesthesiolgica Scandinavica, 52: 591-593.
Aldrete, J. A., Otero, P., Alcover, J., Parietti, A., Johnson, S. C., Montpetit, F. H., Torrieri, A. and Quiroga, D. (2009). Pain on injection from propofol may be avoided by changing its formulation. Acta Anaesthesiolgica Scandinavica, 1-5 doi:10.1111/j.1399-6576.2009.02174.x