Physicochemical and Bacteriological Analyses of Borehole waters in Aninri, Awgu and Oji River Local Government Areas of Enugu State, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
Physicochemical and bacteriological analyses of borehole water samples were randomly collected from ten boreholes which supply drinking water to various communities of Aninri, Awgu and Oji River Local Government Areas of Enugu, Nigeria.
The boreholes were sampled in both dry and rainy seasons. The following physicochemical parameters: pH, temperature,colour, electrical conductivity, turbidity, total dissolved solids, hardness,calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, alkalinity, acidity, lead, copper,cadmium and iron were determined using standard methods.
E. coli count was determined by membrane lauryl sulphate broth method. Results of physicochemical tests were in compliance with WHO guideline values, except in the cases of sulphate level of 1,670 mg/L in water sample from Mpu in Aninri L.G.A.
High chloride levels in samples from Ndeaboh and Mpu with values of 18,088 and 1,095 mg/L respectively. Similarly, sodium was also very high in the two boreholes, 5,625 and 8,500 mg/L.
The water samples showed acid pH particularly in Oji River with values ranging from 4.30 to 6.30. Most of the water samples were soft waters, except samples from Ndeaboh, Mpu and Mgbowo with hardness values of 6,250, 6,250 and 840 mg/L respectively.
Trace metal concentrations were below WHO guideline values, except samples from Mgbowo and Nnenwe with iron values of 4.54 and 3.13 mg/L. E. coli was isolated in two boreholes located in unkept surroundings in Oduma and Agbogugu with E. coli counts of 7 and 108 cfu/100 mL respectively.
Generally, the borehole waters are considered safe for drinking except these ones polluted with E. coli and sodium chloride. The effects of unsafe drinking water are discussed, with recommendations to the Authorities regarding the safety measures to be applied.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i
CERTIFICATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURE x
ABSTRACT xi
Chapter 1 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Groundwater as Source of Potable Water 2
1.2 Water Pollution 3
1.3 Study Area 4
1.4 Statement of the problem 5
1.5 Aim and Objectives 5
1.6 Justification of Study 6
Chapter 2 8
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 8
2.1 Groundwater is a source of Recharge for Boreholes 8
2.2 Groundwater and Dissolved Minerals 9
2.3 Sources of Groundwater Pollution 10
2.4 Bacteria and Borehole Contamination 14
2.5 Factors that Determine Groundwater Contamination 15
2.5.1 Properties of the Chemical Contaminant 15
2.5.2 Properties of the Soil 16
2.5.3 Existing Condition at the Site 16
2.5.4 Human Actions or Practices 17
2.6 A Review of Water Pollution and Pollutants (Contamination) 18
2.7 General Review of the Chemistry of the Parameters
Determined 20
2.8 Water Evaluation 21
2.9 Analysis of Metals 22
2.9.1 Iron 23
2.9.2 Copper 24
2.9.3 Lead 25
2.9.4 Cadmium 25
2.9.5 Sodium 26
2.9.6 Potassium 27
2.9.7 Calcium 27
2.9.8 Magnesium 28
2.10 Physical Parameters 28
2.10.1 Colour 28
2.10.2 Turbidity 30
2.10.3 Temperature 30
2.10.4 Total Dissolved Solids 31
2.10.5 pH 31
2.10.6 Conductivity 32
2.11 Chemical Parameters 33
2.11.1 Total Acidity and Alkalinity 33
2.11.2 Hardness 36
2.11.3 Carbonates and Bicarbonates 37
2.11.4 Chloride 38
2.11.5 Nitrate 39
2.11.6 Sulphate 40
2.11.7 Phosphate 41
Chapter 3 42
3.0 EXPERIMENTAL 42
3.1 Sampling 42
3.2 Preparation of Standard Solutions 44
3.3 Determination of Physical Parameters 44
3.3.1 pH 44
3.3.2 Conductivity 45
3.3.3 Temperature 45
3.3.4 Total Dissolved Solids 45
3.3.5 Colour 46
3.3.6 Turbidity 46
3.4 Determination of Chemical Parameters 46
3.4.1 Determination of Total Hardness 46
3.4.2 Determination of Calcium Hardness 48
3.4.3 Calculation of Calcium and Magnesium Concentrations 49
3.4.4 Determination of Total Alkalinity 50
3.4.5 Determination of Total Acidity 51
3.4.6 Determination of Phosphate 52
3.4.7 Determination of Sulphate 54
3.4.8 Determination of Nitrate 55
3.4.9 Determination of Chloride 56
3.4.10 Determination of Sodium and Potassium 58
3.5 Determination of Trace Metals 59
3.5.1 Sources of Interference 60
3.5.2 Preparation of Samples 60
3.5.3 Determination of the Concentration of Cadmium,
Lead, Iron and Copper in the Water Samples 61
3.6 Bacteriological Analysis 62
Chapter 4 65
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 65
4.1 Concentration of Trace Metals in the Samples 76
4.2 Bacteriological Quality of the Borehole Waters Analyzed 77
Chapter 5 79
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 79-80
REFERENCES 81
INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the earth’s most precious resources. Water is often referred to as a universal solvent because it dissolves many minerals. It can exist in three states as liquid, gas (at 100 oC) and solid (at freezing temperature of < 4 oC). Water is fundamentally important to all plants, animals including man.
Without it, there is no life. Good drinking water is not a luxury but one of the most essential amenities of life. Although water is essential for human survival, many are denied access to sufficient potable water supply and sufficient water to maintain basic hygiene.
Globally, over one billion people lack access to clean safe water2,3,4. The majority of these people are in Asia (20%) and sub-Sahara Africa (42%). Further, about 2.4 billion people lack adequate sanitation worldwide 5. It is estimated that > 80% of ill health in developing countries are water and sanitation-related6.
Thus, lack of safe drinking water supply and poor hygienic practices due to lack of water are associated with high morbidity and mortality from excreta-related diseases. Consequently, water-borne pathogens infect around 250 million people each year resulting in 10 to 20 million deaths world-wide5.
REFERENCES
Ajewole, G., (2005). Water: An Overview. Nigerian Institute of Food Science and Technology, Nigeria, PP: 4-15.
Bresline, E. (2007). Sustainable Water Supply in Developing Countries. Geol. Soc. Amer. Pp. 194.
NAS, (2009). National Academy of Science, Overview-safe drinking water is essential.http://www.drinking-water.org/html/en/index.html (Retrieved July 20, 2014).
Idoko, O.M. (2010). Seasonal Variation in Iron in Rural Groundwater of Benue State, Middle Belt, Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 9(9): 892-895(2010).
WHO/UNICEF, (2000). Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment Report. Geneva, World Health organization. ISBN 944156201
StudentsandScholarship Team.
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