Prospective and Retrospective Study of some Anthropometric and Reproductive Characteristics of Gravid and Menopausal Nigerian Women

Prospective and Retrospective Study of some Anthropometric and Reproductive Characteristics of Gravid and Menopausal Nigerian Women.

ABSTRACT

This study investigated some anthropometric and reproductive characteristics associated with nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (NVP) and menopause among Nigerian women.

Subjects for this study were drawn from the three major ethnic groups in Nigeria and were divided into two groups viz; a prospective study group (n= 344) which constitute gravid women and a retrospective group (n = 324) which consist of menopausal women.

Data was collected through questionnaire via oral interview and recall from these women while anthropometric variables were obtained following standard protocol.

The result showed that an early menarcheal age, higher educational level, increased parity and age at menopause significantly (P<0.05) association with NVP in one group but not in the other.

Although not significant, a higher proportion of women born in wet season, having a higher economic status, an early child birth and carrying female foetuses reported having NVP. So also were variations in the ethnic report of NVP among the study population.

This study also suggest a high prevalence (43.71%) of NVP among Nigerian women and an increased incidence over the years with women of Igbo origin having the highest incidence (53.91%) and Hausa’s the least incidence (34.80%).

NVP was found to impose some limitation and emotional challenge on these women with exposure to certain smell and certain food being the most aggravating factor.

Both pharmaceutical and complimentary medicines were used for management of NVP and lying down was a common manoeuvre as management among those who did not use drugs. Factors found to significantly associated with the age at menopause are religion, ethnicity, parity and age at marriage (P<0.0001).

Other variables that also showed significant  association  were  season  of  birth,  NVP,  breastfeeding, contraception, educational level and number of elder brothers (P<0.05). All other variables found no association although age at menopause increased with age at first birth.

TABLES OF CONTENTS

Cover page —— i
Title page —– ii
Declaration — iii
Certification- iv
Dedication ——- v
Acknowledgement — vi
Abstract ——– viii
Table of Contents – x
List of Tables ——– xiv
Abbreviations —– xv

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Background of study — 1
1.2 Statement of research problem ——– 6
1.3 Significance of the study —– 6
1.4 Justification ——– 6
1.5 Aims and objectives of the study — 7
1.6 Study hypothesis ——- 7
1.7 Limitations —– 8

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature review ————- 9
2.1 Overview of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy — 9
2.2 Aetiology and pathophysiology of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy — 9
2.2.1 Hormonal causes —— 9
2.2.2 The vestibular system —- 13
2.2.3 Gastro intestinal tract (GIT) — 14
2.2.4 Immunology —— 17
2.2.5 Behavioural and psychological factors ——- 18
2.2.6 Nutritional deficiency ———– 19
2.2.7 Anatomy —————— 19
2.2.8 Evolutionary view point (adaptation) —– 20
2.2.9 Genetic factor —- 22
2.2.10 Ethnicity / socio-economic status ——- 23
2.2.11 Demographic factors ———— 26
2.3 Effect of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy ———- 27
2.4 Management options for nausea and vomiting of pregnancy- 29
2.4.1 Non-pharmacologic remedies ——— 30
2.4.2 Drug therapy ———————– 31
2.4.3 Complementary and alternative management — 32
2.5 Menopause —— 33
2.5.1 Factors that influence age at menopause —– 35
2.5.1.1 Demographic characteristics —— 35
2.5.1.2 Reproductive correlates ——– 36
2.5.1.3 Anthropometric factors —- 38
2.5.1.4 Handedness —– 38

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Materials and method —- 40
3.1 Subjects ———- 40
3.2 Methods ——- 40
3.2.1 Determination of NVP and menopause —- 41
3.2.2 Anthropometry ——– 41
3.3 Data analysis ———- 41

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Results – 43

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Discussions —– 68
5.1 NVP and anthropometric characteristics —– 68
5.2 NVP and reproductive characteristics —– 68
5.3 NVP and socio-demographic factors —- 70
5.4 Menstrual status and incidence/prevalence of NVP —— 7I
5.5 Effect of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy ——- 72
5.6 Management option for NVP ——— 72
5.7 Age at menopause —— 73
5.8 Menopause and socio-demographic characteristics ——— 74
5.9 Menopause and reproduction —— 76

CHAPTER SIX

6.0 Summary, conclusion and recommendation—- 78
6.1 Summary and conclusion —- 78
6.2 Recommendation –80
References ——– 81
Appendices —- 96

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Anthropometric characteristics have been shown to be possible predictors of reproductive success in human female species and this has been widely studied.

Height, weight and body mass index (BMI) has been associated with increased parity, twinning and higher fertility in women (Danborno and Oyibo, 2008; Pollet and Nettle, 2008; Swami et al., 2008).

Other has also considered certain reproductive characteristics as probable markers for biological determinants of longevity, especially, early fecundity and late menopause (Doblhammer et al., 1999).

Reproductive history has been tied to and now well known to determine the existence of the female species as the female’s reproductive characteristics is known to determine her survival, fitness, adaptation, and aging and to an extent, survival and reproduction of her offspring from evolutionary perspective (Voland and Engel 1986).

However, studies have shown that approximately one-quarter of variation could be attributed to genetic factors and three-quarters to unknown environmental factors (Herskind et al., 1996).

Among other reproductive characteristics, age at menarche, menopause and nausea and vomiting of pregnancy has been proposed by researchers to be influenced by demographic, environmental, anthropometric and other factors (Simondon et al., 1997; Danborno and Oyibo, 2008; Parazzini et al.1992; Luoto et al. 1994) other than the gene.

REFERENCES

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Allaway, S., Last, P. and Hale, A. (1991). What determines the age at the menopause? British Medical Journal, 303:250.
Armin Rashidi and Daryl Shanley (2009). Evolutions of menopause: life histories and mechanisms. Menopause International, 15:26-30
Bagis, T., Gumurdulu, Y., Kayaselcu, K.F., Yilmaz, E.K., and Tarim, E. (2002). Endoscopy in hyperemesis gravidarum and Helicobacter pylori infection. International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 79:105-109.
Bener, A., Rizk, D.E., Ezimokhai, M., Hassan, M., Micallef, R., and Sawaya,M. (1998). Consanguinity and the age of menopause in the United Arab Emirates. International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 60 (2):155-60.
Bennett, T.A., Kotelchuck, M., Cox, C.E., Tucker, M.J., Nadeau, D.A., (1998). Pregnancy-associated hospitalizations in the United States in 1991 and 1992: a comprehensive view of maternal morbidity. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 178:346-54.

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