Toxicity of Aqueous Extracts of Sacoglottis Gabonensis, Azadirachta Indica and their Efficacy Against Eimeria Tenella and Eimeria Maxima Infection in Broiler Chickens.
ABSTRACT
The Toxicity of Aqueous Extracts of Sacoglottis gabonensis, Azadirachta indica and their Efficacy Against Eimeria tenella and Eimeria maxima infection in Broiler Chickens were studied. A total of 260 broiler chickens were used for this study.
They were purchased at day old and maintained on a deep litter system in the Animal House of the Department of Veterinary Parasitology and Entomology University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The birds were acclimatized for four weeks and routinely vaccinated against major avian viral diseases before the commencement of the study.
Ninety broiler chicks each were used for both acute and chronic toxicity tests and were respectively treated intra-peritoneally and orally (for 28 days) with graded doses (200, 400, 800, 1200, 1600 mg/kg) of aqueous extracts of stem bark of Sacoglottis gabonensis (SG), leaves of Azadirachta indica (AI) and equal mixture of the two extracts (MX) in distilled water.
The in vitro anti-sporulation effect of the extracts was studied using various dilutions (100, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 mg/ml) and were compared with those of Embazin-forteR (EF) at 30g/50l of water, AmproliumR (AM) at 100g/250l of drinking water and 2% potassium dichromate solutions (PDS).
The in vivo anti-coccidial efficacy of the extracts, MX, EF and AM were compared in 50 broilers infected with a mixture of Eimeria tenella (80%) and E. maxima (20%) oocysts. The birds were randomly assigned into ten groups (A – J) of five birds each. Groups A – I were infected with 200,000 sporulated oocysts of the Eimeria species (dose determined through a pilot study) while group J was not infected.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Abstract v
Table of contents viii
List of Tables xii
List of Figures xiii
Lists of Plates xiv
List of Abbreviations xvii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Statement of the problem 1
1.3 Aims and Objectives 4
1.4 Scope of the Study 5
1.5 Significance of the Study 5
1.6 Expected Outcome 5
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Sporozoa of the Digestive Tract of Chicken 7
2.2 Eimeria parasites of Domestic Chickens 7
2.3 Epidemiology 10
2.3.1 Life Cycle of Eimeria Coccidian 10
2.3.2 Factors Influencing the Occurrences of Coccidiosis 14
2.4 Pathology of Avian Coccidiosis 15
2.4.1 Clinical Signs of Avian Coccidiosis 16
2.4.2 Gross Pathology of Coccidiosis 16
2.4.2.1 Caecal Coccidiosis 16
2.4.2.2 Intestinal Coccidiosis 17
2.4.3 Histopathology of Coccidiosis 17
2.4.3.1 Caecal Coccidiosis 18
2.4.3.2 Intestinal Coccidiosis 18
2.4.4 Biochemical Changes 18
2.5 Immunity to Avian Coccidial Parasite 20
2.6 Diagnosis of Avian Coccidiosis 24
2.7 Treatment and Control of Avian Coccidiosis 27
2.8 Ethnomedicine 31
2.9 Neem Plant 32
2.9.1 Taxonomical Classification and Botanical Description of Neem Plant 32
2.9.2 Chemical Compounds in Neem 35
2.9.3 Neem, Agriculture and the Environment 36
2.9.4 Neem and the Industry 38
2.9.5 Neem in Ethnomedicine and Ethnoveterinary 39
2.10 Sacoglotis gabonensis plant 45
2.10.1 Vernacular 45
2.10.2 Origin and Geography 45
2.10.3 Production and International Trade 45
2.10.4 Description 45
2.10.5 Properties 46
2.10.6 Uses in Ethnomedicie 46
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS 50
3.1 Collection and Processing of Plant Materials 50
3.2 Experimental Animals 50
3.3 Experimental Drugs and Extracts 51
3.4 Collection and Preparation of Eimeria Occysts (Field Strain) 52
3.5 Pilot Study to Determine the Infecting Dose of Occyst 53
3.6 Acute Toxicity Test 53
3.7 Chronic Toxicity Test 53
3.8 In vitro Anti-coccidial effects of the Extracts and their Mixture 54
3.9 In Vivo A nti-coccidial effects of the Extracts and their Mixture 55
3.10 Parameters Evaluated 55
3.10.1 Clinical Signs 55
3.10.2 Parasitology 56
3.10.3 Haematology 56
3.10.4 Biochemical Evaluation 57
3.10.5 Examination for Gross and Histopathological Lesions 57
3.10.6 Statistical Analysis of Data 58
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT 59
4.1 Toxicity Studies 59
4.1.1 Acute Toxicity 59
4.1.2 Chronic Toxicity 62
4.2 Anti-coccidial Effects 68
4.2.1 In vitro Anti-coccidial Effects 68
4.2.2 In vivo Anti-coccidial Effects 70
4.2.2.1 Pathogenic Manifestations of the Infection 70
4.2.2.2 Occyst Output 92
4.2.2.3 Haematology 95
4.2.2.3.1 Packed Cell Volume 95
4.2.2.3.2 Haemoglobin Concentration 95
4.2.2.3.3 Red Blood Cell Count 98
4.2.2.3.4 Total White Blood Cell Count 98
4.2.2.3.5 Total Protein 101
4.2.2.3.6 Serum Albumin 101
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSSION 104
5.1 Discussion 104
5.2 Conclusion 110
REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
Poultry constitutes a valuable source of animal protein, especially in rural communities, in many African countries (Akinokun, 1990). Poultry meat is a very important source of animal protein since birds mature earlier than most other animals.
However, diseases, including coccidiosis, constitute a major health problem and limitation to poultry production worldwide (Gordon and Jordan, 1982). Coccidiosis has been documented as the most consistently reported health problem in poultry (Williams, 1998; Biggs, 1982; Rose, 1987).
It occurs commonly under intensive rearing conditions, where pathogenic populations of the causative agent easily build up (C.A.B.I, 2003). Avian coccidiosis is caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Eimeria that invade the cells of the avian intestine.
Coccidiosis is endemic in Nigeria (Akpavie, 1998), and is characterized by enteritis, diarrhoea and mortality. Outbreaks usually result in severe damage and enormous economic losses as a result of the associated mortality and morbidity in form of reduced weight gain and feed conversion efficiency (Oluyemi and Roberts, 2000).
Sub-clinical infections result in poor performance, impaired feed conversion, poor flock uniformity and poor growth. It has been reported that the US poultry industry suffers in excess of one to two billion dollars in annual losses relating to coccidian infections, treatment and prevention (Danforth and Augustine, 1989; Talebi and Mulcahy, 1995; Yun et al., 2000).
However, it is difficult to accurately estimate the total monetary losses suffered by the world’s poultry industry resulting from coccidiosis and its prevention and control (Danforth, 1998; Williams, 1998), because coccidiosis is worldwide and infects all types of poultry in all types of facilities (Mc Dougald and Reid, 1997).
Coccidia can also damage the immune system and leave poultry more vulnerable to other pathogens likeClostridium and Salmonella species. Furthermore, diseases like Marek’s disease and infectious bursal disease that suppress the bird’s immune system may act synergistically with coccidiosis to produce a more severe problem (Helm, 1999).
REFERENCES
Abraham, S. N and M. Arock. (1998). Mast cells and basophils in innate immunity. Immunology. 10:373-381.
Adams, C., A. Vahl and A. Veldman. (1996). Interaction between nutrition and Eimeria acervulina infection in broiler chickens: development of an experimental infection model. British journal of nutrition. 75:867-873
Ahmed, S., Bamofleh, M and Munshi, A (1989). Cultivation of neem (Azadirachta indica) in saudi Arabia. Econ. Bot., 43: 35-38.
Aikawa, M. and Sterling, C. R. (1974). Intracellular Parasitic Protozoa. P.76. New York: Academic press.
Akinniyi, J. A. and Sultanbawa, M. U. S. (1983). A glossary of Kanuri names of plants with botanical names, distribution and uses. Annals of borno 1: 85-93.
StudentsandScholarship Team.
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